Cognitive Intelligence and Emotional Intelligence in Organisational Behavior

Emotional intelligence Emotional intelligence (EI) involves understanding one’s emotions plus those of others and using these capabilities to ensure the best outcomes for all concerned. EI also revolves around knowledge of the source of emotions, what emotions mean, and the kind of information they provide towards being able to work well with others.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Cognitive Intelligence and Emotional Intelligence in Organisational Behavior specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), is an assessment tool that measures and tests aspects of EI. This analysis concentrates on knowledge and rarely on the ability to perform the tasks related to the knowledge measured. Unlike the past, when all a person needed was intelligence in order to be successful, the present day scenario has made EI mandatory for success; way above intellig ence quotient (IQ). Both managers and employees should be capable of managing themselves as well as other persons in order to be successful. Emotional intelligence is practical within a working environment if an individual handles the moods, emotions and impulses of other individuals with utmost sensitivity (Eisenberg, 2000). According to Sutton (1991), emotions, both negative and positive play a vital role in an individual’s life, both in the workplace and at home. Excitement and satisfaction are common when an employee gets an appreciable hike, wins a contract or a promotion from the management. However, frustration and anger prevail when an individual’s efforts are not appreciated by the right people. Emotions shoot up when an employee is pressured to work within stringent deadlines. Such stressing situations that are common within the context of a home or office, especially while dealing with different individuals, result from the inability to make an intelligent a ssessment of the various possible emotions. Emotional intelligence in the recent past has received considerable attention as potentially useful aspect in predicting and understanding an employee’s performance and success in the workplace. According to Rotundo Sackett, (2002), EI is a complex and multifaceted ability to be efficient and effective in majority of the life’s domains, as well as job success. Further, EI has been defined on the basis of competencies as a learned capability associated with emotional intelligence that translates to phenomenal performance in the place of work.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Cognitive intelligence On the other hand, Cognitive intelligence is defined as the intellectual capabilities such as writing, reading, logic, analyzing, reason and prioritizing. Tests conducted to measure cognitive ability are used in performance a nalysis. Such tests are used to measure an individual’s ability to solve problems in various cognitive spheres. The distinction between emotional intelligence and cognitive intelligence is evidenced in the psychometric tests of assessing cognitive ability and psychometric tests of intelligence (Sparrowe et al., 2001). Cognitive intelligence as a latent trait is assessed by psychometric tests. The cognitive ability is also assessed by tests that change over time; varying on the age as well as intelligence. Strengths of emotional intelligence and cognitive intelligence With reference to job performance, cognitive intelligence has been identified to relate to such job performance dimensions as organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and task performance. While OCB involves activities that are vital in achieving the organization’s objectives, though not formally considered as part of a job, task performance concerns the primary substantive duties that are formally consid ered part of the job (Rotundo Sackett, 2002). Theoretically, cognitive intelligence fosters task performance through the knowhow of rules, procedures and facts relevant to the technical core of the job. It further enhances OCB through such aspects as rules, procedures and facts vital for effective cooperating, helping and endorsement for the organization. Employees considered limited by their cognitive abilities may reconsider focusing on the benefits of high emotional intelligence as they often report low job performance in most jobs. With low job performance, there is a relatively larger room for correction and improvement. For instance, a salesperson who fails to retain the interest of possible customers is likely to lower the possibility of mistakes in future. As such, failure to attain job performance through cognitive intelligence can be compensated for through complementary mechanisms under emotional intelligence. Some of the strengths of emotional intelligence are as follow s: First, additional mechanisms include proficiency at identifying and understanding the emotions of other individuals. This is achievable within the working environment whereby organization members interact with coworkers, supervisors, support staff, and with outsiders such as patients, clients and customers. In the process of interacting, emotions are publicly displayed through vocal, facial and bodily signals that relay vital messages about their intentions, attitudes and goals (Sutton, 1991).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Cognitive Intelligence and Emotional Intelligence in Organisational Behavior specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For individuals with low cognitive intelligence and high emotional intelligence, such pertinent information may be transformed to high-risk performance. On the contrary, an individual with high cognitive intelligence and low emotional intelligence can accurately detect the publicl y displayed emotions to facilitate interpersonal functioning and coordination necessary for enhancing task performance. Additionally, information about other people’s intentions, attitudes and goals may be transformed into frequent OCB by individuals exhibiting low cognitive intelligence and high emotional intelligence. Such individuals can, for instance, depict the need for assistance for individuals exhibiting anxiety and sadness (Eisenberg, 2000). Secondly, emotional intelligence can enhance job performance of low-cognitive-intelligence individuals’ through regulating emotional influences to cater for social relationships. If an employee generates and displays genuine emotions, rather than fake ones, he/she is likely to receive favorable reactions. Showing genuine concern for coworkers’ problems enable employees to develop stronger relationships than employees showing less concern. To develop good social relationships, individuals with high emotional intellig ence and low cognitive intelligence may use their abilities to manage emotions. With well established and strong social relationships, there are higher chances of enhancing task performance through advice and social support. Similarly, favourable working relationships will highly prompt employees to participate in OCB more often to the advantage of colleagues (Sparrowe et al., 2001). Thirdly, job performance individuals with low cognitive intelligence can be enhanced by emotional intelligence through the effects of emotions on the individuals’ thoughts and actions. Individuals with low cognitive intelligence but intelligent emotionally can attain high levels of task performance and OCB in most jobs, by managing their emotions towards strengthening their motivation and quality of their decisions. For instance, understanding that anger leads individuals to undermine the level of risk in situations prompts managers to suppress anger while in the process of making an important fi nancial decision; thus portraying positive task performance. Similarly, an employee that understands the importance of positive emotions in enhancing motivation will boost positive emotions towards engaging in OCB (Gardner, 1983). Although open for discussion, it has been proven that emotional intelligence will often relate to the job performance of an individual within the organization with low cognitive intelligence, and in turn compensate for the low cognitive intelligence. However, as cognitive intelligence increases, emotional intelligence should be less positively related with job performance.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Emotional intelligence is associated with certain benefits. Unlike in 1918, the Intelligence quotient (IQ) is now rated 24 points higher; a direct consequence of more schooling, better nutrition and smaller family sizes. However, emotional quotient (EQ) is lower between the two periods. The low EQ is evidenced by the bahaviours common with kids in the current times; more aggressive, more angry and unruly, more lonely and depressed, nervous and prone to worry. Cases of crime and violence are on the rise; drug abuse is persisting, cases of alienation and despair rising, unwanted pregnancies, school dropouts, eating disorders and even bullying (Wood et al., 2010). In business and psychology, it has become a pass time to predict job performance. When the performance assessment is carried out comprehensively using data from subordinates, peers and superiors, EQ predicts a higher performance thrice as good as IQ. Emotional intelligence contributes up to 90 percent for leadership through t he influence, team skills, self-confidence, political awareness and achievement drive. However, unsuccessful leaders, we depicted as being angry, lacking empathy, moody, defensive and critical. In corporate setting and blue-collar occupations, emotional intelligence assessments have been employed in predicting success and failure. Furthermore, the assessments have been instrumental in predicting aggression in the workplace, academic dropout, ability to recover from severe mental conditions and ability to cope with extreme medical conditions (Eisenberg, 2000). Limitations of emotional intelligence and cognitive intelligence Although many writers and scholars of intelligence have denoted the need for emotional intelligence as a necessary condition for effective leadership or productive leader-members relations, an empirical study to scrutinize this link suggests otherwise. Contention and issues of controversy touch on the definition and methods of measurement or predicting emotional i ntelligence; and what EI is supposed to measure or predict. Although it allows us to maintain relationships and keep our actions under control, emotional intelligence is variously dismissed as being just another management concept. More often than not, organizations encourage their employees to embrace emotional intelligence both during the hiring and development stages of their careers at the organisation. Individuals with low emotional intelligence view the move by the HR as an intrusion or hindrance into their personal lives. Consequently, emotional intelligence cannot be learned overnight but requires time and effort to learn and practice it correctly (Sosik Megerian, 1999) Unlike cognitive intelligence, that is measurable using psychometric tests, emotional intelligence is people ability and measurement of the social skills among individuals is a daunting task. Numerous analysis and effort are required in order for a successful analysis to be conclusive. Cognitive ability and emotional intelligence in modern organisations Organizations instituting leadership development programs depend on the feedback of coworkers to have a clue of how their leaders conduct themselves in the workplace. Variations exist in the results of employees’ self-ratings compared to the ratings by their supervisors, coworkers and subordinates. Management development often focuses on primary skills, abilities and knowledge that are considered fundamental to high-performing individuals or effective leadership behavior. The important leader behaviours are defined and acknowledged in a way that allows for their assessment and feeding back to the individual. Once an analysis of the key traits is done, the concerned individual is motivated to increase their understanding of areas of strength and weakness, in turn driving the development of improved leadership behaviour (Conway Huffcutt, 1997). In an effort to improve the organization as well as the individual’s performance , organizations invest considerable resources into skill development the individuals on the management level and above. As expected, increase in the return on investment points to the progressive employee development strategies. In addition to the management of skill development during a management-development initiative, it is essential to consider the skills an organization terms crucial for improvement. Organizations are guaranteed of better performing leaders championing for higher returns on investment if investment in the right skills is successful (Wood et al., 2010). In a similar tone, the lines of intelligence testing movement are adhered to by roots of emotional intelligence. Various forms of intelligence, such as social intelligence or the ability to act wisely towards other individuals exist. This aspect of intelligence has since its conception been a daunting task to measure, compared to measuring an individual’s cognitive abilities. Despite the challenges, attem pts to measure social intelligence have established that it is composed of three aspects: social knowledge, attitude toward society and degree of social judgment (Gardner, 1983). Further research was instrumental in coining of the concept emotional intelligence, as the presence of cognitive ability. It was a few years later that emotional intelligence was brought to the mainstream public and was quickly embraced by the leadership development community. Organization value emotional intelligence as it provides a framework for the measuring and designing of emotionally-based soft skills. According to Goleman et al. (2002), emotional intelligence is designed for use in organizational theory, research and practice to develop effectiveness of individuals both in leadership positions and workplace. Emotional intelligence in organizational outcomes has also been correlated with performance, and especially with linkage to leadership performance. Research conducted by Sosik and Megerian (1999 ) established leaders with high emotional intelligence performed better than their low emotional intelligence colleagues. Performance on job-related cognitive ability tasks have also been linked with emotional intelligence. A survey conducted in 1997 on benchmark was conducted on various corporations. From the survey, Goleman (1998) discovered 80 percent of companies focused on trying to promote emotional intelligence in their employees through training and development. While it was implemented during the recruiting and evaluation processes, almost 90 percent of desired traits for entry-level workers but were correlated with emotional intelligence. Following the results of various studies conducted across corporations the world over; it was conclusive that evidence pointed to the importance of emotional intelligence for the entry and success in the workplace today. Similarly, inclusion of emotional intelligence competencies is important as concluded by the agricultural education res earch. Goleman (1998) further argues that in order to apply emotional intelligence in the workplace, two set of competencies ought to exist: personal and social. Similarly, a divergent view postulates that eight factors should be considered while implementing emotional intelligence in an organization. These reservations arise because individuals differ in the abilities to handle emotions; while others may manage personal emotions and anxieties well, handling other people’s emotions might prove impossible. As such, researchers have concluded that individuals’ underlying basis for their levels of ability is neutral. Additionally, the human brain is considered plastic; ready to learn at every given opportunity. Variations in emotional skills can be compensated, especially if the concerned parties are willing to take up the task. References Conway, J. M. Huffcutt, A.I. (1997). Psychometric properties of multisource performance ratings: a meta-analysis of subordinate, supe rvisor, peer and self-ratings. Human Performance. 10, 331-360. Eisenberg, N. (2000). â€Å"Emotion, regulation, and moral development.† Annual Review of Psychology. 51: 665–697. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basis Books. Goleman, D. (1996). Emotional Intelligence. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. London. Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R. McKee, A. (2002). Primal leadership: realizing the power of emotional intelligence. Harvard Business School Press: Boston. Rotundo, M. Sackett, P. R., (2002). â€Å"The relative importance of task, citizenship, and counterproductive performance to global ratings of job performance: A policy-capturing approach.† Journal of Applied Psychology. 87: 66–80. Sosik, J. J. Megerian, L. E. (1999). Understanding leader emotional intelligence and performance: the role of self-other agreement on transformational leadership perceptions. Group and Organization Management. 24, 367-390. Sparrowe , R. T., Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J. Kraimer, M. L. (2001). â€Å"Social networks and the performance of individuals and groups.† Academy of Management Journal. 44: 316–325. Sutton, R. I. (1991). â€Å"Maintaining norms about expressed emotions: The case of bill collectors.† Administrative Science Quarterly. 36: 245–268. Wood, J., Zeffane, R., Fromholtz, M., Wiesner, R., Creed, A., Schermerhorn, J., et al. (2010). Organisational behaviour: Core concepts and applications (2nd ed.). Brisbane: John Wiley and Sons. This essay on Cognitive Intelligence and Emotional Intelligence in Organisational Behavior was written and submitted by user Vanessa Stevenson to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Prose study -The Time Machine by HG Wells Essay Example

Prose study Prose study -The Time Machine by HG Wells Paper Prose study -The Time Machine by HG Wells Paper Essay Topic: Literature The Time Machine As part of my English literature coursework, I am going to analyse H. G wells novel The Time Machine. I shall be focusing on chapter 12 of the play and explaining how this chapter is the climax of the narrative. I will also be considering how Wells creates suspense. Herbert George Wells was born on 21st November 1866 in Bromley, Kent. His father, a shopkeeper and cricketer and his mother a housekeeper. However Wells developed a love for literature at a very young age and used to study books in the library secretly. Wells obtained a scholarship and studied biology at the normal school of science. He left however without a degree and in 1891 married his cousin Isabel. From 1893, Wells became a full time writer. Wells was a novelist, journalist, sociologist and historian but is best known for works such as The invisible man, war of the worlds and in 1895, the time machine. The time machine is basically about the English class division of his time as well as a warning that human progress is not inevitable. The novel is set in the time it was written, as H. G Wells wrote this story to demonstrate the social issues of his time. The story is narrated by Hillyer who is present at the time travellers home along with several of the time travellers friends. These people are frequently identified by their professions rather than their names. The room consists of a provincial mayor, a medical man, a sociologist and a journalist. All of these people have professional careers; they have recognition in society due to their professions. This instantly shows us the class division of the time, as no non-professional person is present in the gathering. Meaning that the public is given little or no importance in informing them of such a scientific breakthrough. The time travellers theories are that any real body has four dimensions rather than three. These are, breadth, length, thickness and also duration. The first three are known as planes and the fourth as time. He also believed that like we can draw 3D on 2D, we should also be able to do 3D on 4D. Working on this theory, the time traveller has found a way of moving through time using a time machine. As well as this the time traveller also has theories on evolution that in the future the capitalist has evolved into the Eloi (peaceful but weak humans) and the labourers have evolved into the morlocks (aggressive ape-like people). However as the story progresses, he begins to rethink this theory and decides that the Eloi are the capitalists but have adapted to the life of the labourers. As they seem to have no control over their surroundings. He also thinks that the morlocks are in fact the labourers but have begun living the lives of capitalists, as they seem to be having total control. The balance of power has shifted entirely, causing confusion in. Again, Wells has clearly expressed his views on the social issues of his time. He is saying that the capitalists (morlocks) feed on the labourers (Eloi). This at present seems confusing but is later understood as the story continues. Naturally, some of the guests of the time traveller seem a little sceptical of the idea that man can travel through time, (yet they still admitted that there was such thing as the fourth dimension) and that rich, noble people would in the future become vicious human flesh eating people. Therefore the time travellers account of the future seems to be a bit of a joke, a kind of fantasy. So, to answer this puzzle that is in both the guests and readers minds, he backs his theory using scientific evidence. In fact Darwins and the Fabians theories were the basis of the time travellers very own. Darwin believed that everything was evolved from one thing or the other, for example, that humans ancestors were apes and monkeys. Similarly the time traveller has a theory on the labourers and the capitalist evolving into the morlocks and the Eloi. At first, Darwins theory was abandoned and people stuck to what was said in the bible. However, in Wells time the theory of evolution was gradually being accepted. The time traveller believes that through time, the social class division has gone to such an extreme that two different species have evolved, the morlocks and the Eloi. He also declares that this division is ongoing but is a lot more visible in the future, however the Eloi are unaware of it. This point is supported by the Fabians society. This society recognised the mistreatment of labourers and the inequalities of capitalism. Wells too joined this society and so is giving his opinions on the class struggle of the 1900s via the time traveller. Despite all this, Hillyer (the narrator) was most hesitant to reject the time travellers claims. Seen as though the book is demonstrating the class struggle, the book is based upon two forms of human: Eloi -the Eloi have several interesting characteristics that the time traveller talks about, including their appearance and way of living: Fragile and very sweet -this shows that the Eloi are peaceful yet weak. So sleep together to avoid being eaten by the morlocks. Due to such statements, the time traveller thought that the Eloi descended from the Labourers rather than the morlocks. These people of the remote future were strict vegetarians. -This again shows the simplicity of the Eloi; they only eat what is available, unlike the morlocks who go hunting for food (the Elois). I felt like a school teacher amidst children -the time traveller is comparing the behaviour of the Eloi to children. He is stating that the Elois attention span is that of a child, and that they dont seem to be interested in him for too long. The Eloi therefore have evolved from the Capitalists of the 19th century, rather than the Labourers. The time traveller realises this as he notices the Elois simple mindedness and the fact that they are pleasant but weak humans, so have not the mind s to form some sort of self-defence. The second types of species are the morlocks -these are predatory humans who have developed to live in the dark. Consequently they seem to be afraid of the light as the time traveller says, I lit a match, and, looking down I saw a small, white moving creature with large bright eyes which regarded me steadfastly as it retreated. The time traveller first thought these were nocturnal animals but later finds out the truth. With his first encounter with a morlocks, the time traveller describes it as a queer little ape-like figure, its head held down in a peculiar manner. He further describes the morlocks, dull white, and had strange large greyish eyes. The morlocks also had flaxen hair on their head and their backs which is why the time traveller later says it was so like a human spider! they also appeared to hold their forearms very low which made them look as if they were walking on all fours. With this brief encounter with the morlocks, the time traveller instantly begins to think up of a theory as to what these species were. At first, he thought they were some kind of nocturnal animals, as they possessed all the characteristics of one (used to the dark, large eyes). Except later he accepts that the morlocks like the Eloi, are human. After this does the truth dawn onto him that future human had divided into two species and that the morlocks were the people of the year 802,701 that lived underground. The upper class of Wells time had if any, very limited respect for the labourers class. And due to this class division, the time traveller presumes that the morlocks are the direct descendants of the labourers of the 19th century. As he says, even now, does not an east-end worker live in such artificial conditions as practically to be cut off from the natural surface of the earth? here the time traveller is discussing the similarities between the labourers of the 19th century and the morlocks of the 26th. As the story progresses, the time traveller discovers that at night, the morlocks eat the Eloi and so dont always stay underground. Here we are shown a real contrast between the species. The Eloi, calm and rather child like who live simply and are rather unaware of their surroundings. On the other hand are the morlocks, vicious, carnivorous species who arent exactly what they seem. With this in mind, the time traveller begins to rethink his theory and now decides that that the Eloi are in fact the capitalists, unaware of what lies ahead hether theyll still survive or not. Furthermore the morlocks are actually the labourers, knowing what lies ahead of them. They appear to be innocent in front of the Eloi, but in actual fact they secretly conquer the underworld and roam the top of the world by night. Once again, Wells has clearly projected his ideas via the time traveller but also, has hinted the moral of the story. Wells is stating how unfair capitalism is in his time and what it woul d lead into if it were not stopped. Focusing on chapter twelve Chapter twelve, in the darkness, is clearly the climax of the narrative. This is partly due to what happened prior to this chapter. Particularly in chapter eleven, when the time traveller takes Weena (one of the Elois) to the palace of green porcelain. Here the time traveller amazingly discovers items of use, a box of matches, some camphor and an iron crow bar. And at last in one of the really airtight cases, I found a box of matches, the were perfectly good. They were not even damp and then by the merest accident I discovered, in an airtight case, two dynamite cartridges! I think this is too much of a coincident that a box of matches has been preserved for six centuries and are in fully working order. Therefore I think wells has places these things on purpose in the palace, so that the audience are given a clear indication of what dangers lye ahead of Weena and the time traveller. Wells has created suspense before the beginning of chapter twelve; this also assists in chapter 12 bein g the climax of the story. Chapter twelve has three stages of suspense, the beginning, the middle when the woods is set on fire and the end when Weena disappears. This structure not only helps make the chapter more understandable, but also gradually builds up suspense as we read on. Therefore this technique adds to the readers pleasure. In the beginning, everything seems to be calm and normal, nothing is going wrong. Having learned the morlocks weakness, the time traveller prepares himself by gathering wood and grass in order to start a fire and repel the morlocks. But when he recalls the incident that happened once going in the woods, the time traveller regrets going in, I was to discover the atrocious folly of this proceeding. Once entering the woods, the time traveller and Weena realise that they are being followed by the morlocks. While we hesitated, among the black bushes behind us, and dim against their blackness, I saw three crouching figures. So the time traveller lit a match to scare away the morlocks. Later, he and Weena fell asleep whilst the fire was lit, but somehow the fire had gone out and the morlocks had taken the matchbox and Weena. He finds his iron crowbar, and fights off the Morlocks currently attacking him, and then finds that the forest is burning. He makes it to the summit of a hill and watches the Morlocks total confusion as a result of the fire And now I was to see the most weird and horrible thing, I think, of all that I beheld in that future age. He then decides that Weena is lost forever, and so he continues on to the Sphinx. This incident creates tension on the outcome of the play, the audience is kept guessing as to whether the time traveller will make it or not, or will he also be captured by the morlocks? In the third stage, Wells uses emotive language to display the time travellers feelings at the loss of Weena. The Time Traveller reaches a new emotional low after losing Weena, and the error of his choices are again painfully clear to him by the end of the night. The value of his relationship with Weena also becomes more evident after she is gone. The Time Traveller mentions his loneliness and thoughts of the present company (who are listening to his story) and his longing to see them. The Time Traveller makes clear that although in most ways Weena is far from similar to humans from his day, her feelings for him were very human, in the most important similarity there could be. I felt the intensest wretchedness for the horrible death of little Weena. It seemed an overwhelming calamity. The time traveller is an extremely powerfully written novel. Wells ideas of the state of his own civilization are distinct. He is trying to say that the capitalists of his time are like the morlocks. The capitalists are perhaps like scavengers, hungry for the flesh of labourers. He is also presenting his opini on on the unequal division of the classes. Like the morlocks and the Eloi, the capitalists and the labourers are two different species. The Eloi can once be compared to the 19th century capitalists, that they too enjoy the riches of the upper world. But in fact the situation is quite the opposite. The morlocks only let the Eloi live so that they can later eat them. Similarly, in Wells opinion, the capitalists only let the labourers live so that they can get work out of them. Wells message is simple; this extreme class division should end. An audience of the 21st century would react differently to the audience of the 19th century regarding the story. This is because now, the industrial revolution has almost entirely disappeared, resulting in hardly any labourers. Even so, these few labourers are treated with dignity and with respect, unlike in the time of H. G Wells. Another reason would be that the class divisions of the modern day are not so extreme as they were before. This novel is once again extremely well written and the moral is easily understood. However, in my opinion, this novel is aimed at an older audience rather than a teenage one. This is due to the language and grammar used in the book.

The Promotion of Unhealthy Habits through Smoking Essay

The Promotion of Unhealthy Habits through Smoking - Essay Example This essay "The Promotion of Unhealthy Habits through Smoking" outlines the negative effect of the advertising, its targets and the most influenced age group. Till as late as the 1970s tobacco companies had an almost unobstructed ride with their freewheeling advertisements. However, as more and more irrefutable scientific evidence pointed towards smoking-related health hazards, governments of more advanced nations and various other social and medical groups took up cudgels against irresponsible cigarette advertisements that could mislead people. In the United States such resistance culminated in the Master Settlement Act (MSA) signed on November 1998 between 46 states and five territories and he major tobacco companies viz. Phillip Morris Companies (now known as Altria), RJ Reynolds Tobacco, Lorillard Tobacco, and Brown and Williamson. The MSA came into effect in 1999 and curbed outdoor cigarette advertising, transit advertising, cigarette-related cartoon characters, product placemen t in the media and tobacco merchandizing (Krugman et al, 2006, pp. 197). Simultaneously, it had been made mandatory that all tobacco products carry health hazard warnings, and even more stringent laws have been enacted in states such as California to ban tobacco advertisements in youth magazines and sale of tobacco to young people. In spite of all such anti-smoking measures, tobacco companies still managed to come up with novel ways of circumventing the law and rules and use advertisements to promote sales.

The Fall Of The Roman Empire Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Fall Of The Roman Empire - Essay Example Much is known about the history of the early Greek, but nothing much is known about the early history of Rome prior to B.C.753. The culture that was built by the Romans is called classical and they could make a vast empire in Rome. The mythological history of Rome states that it was built by Romulus and Remus, the twin wolfs. As the idiom, ‘Rome was not built in one day’, depicts the duration of building the Roman Empire. The hard work and organized enthusiasm of the Romans could make a great empire that reached far and across the world. As the building of the empire took many years it took years for the fall of the empire too. The Romans were not great thinkers as the Greek but were men of sound commonsense and mighty action. The Romans were fine soldiers and were organized well and this enabled them to build a mighty Roman empire. They were the people who had exceptional skill in administrative levels and statesmanship which enabled them to rule many countries far and across Rome. The generals and statesmen like Julius Caesar and Augustus could extend the boundaries of the empire to other side of the world. Their capacity to rule the different nations of language and creed was one of the successes of their culture and civilization. Due to the expansion of the Empire it was divided into two- the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman empire. The Roman Empire lasted for five centuries. The fall of Roman Empire happened in 476 A.D. Even after the fall of Roman Empire that happened in the Western side the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) continued for 1000 more years. The final fall of the empire took place when Constantinople, which was the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in the year A.D. 1453. The fall of the Roman Empire was a gradual process. Many reasons are associated with the fall of this great Empire. The reasons for the fall of Roman Empire: The long history of the Roman Empire tells the ups and downs of the empire. As it took many years to build the nation it took rather same years to the destruction of the nation. There are so many major and minor reasons that caused the decline of the vast empire. The major reasons for the fall of the Roman Empire are given below. Weak rulers: Among the five centuries of Roman rule 200 years witnessed the golden rule of the emperors whereas the remaining 300 years the empire was on the death bed. As the empire was wide great rulers had to be there, but the number of the great rulers were less in Rome. This resulted in loose maintaining of peace in the country. Of course Rome was ruled by the mighty leaders like Augustus, Julius Caesar, Diocletian, Theodosius the Great, and Marcus Aurelius. But these generals were few in number and for every great ruler there were dozens of weak rulers. In the history of five centuries in about 84 emperors ruled Rome and among them only a few are counted to be good and efficient. In A.D. 476 Odoacer, the leader of the German barbarians put an end to the flickering fame of the Roman Empire by expelling the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustus. As the leaders were weak the barbarians from all sides of the empire attacked Rome. The Geographical barriers of the Rome had to surrender before the constant attacks of the barbarians. Rome had to defend from the rivers Rhine ( 820) miles and Danude (1,771 miles). As Thorpe observes, â€Å"from 180 A.D., the West depended upon mercenaries to defend its boundaries and relied more on arms than fortifications (no one thought that Rome would not endure forever)† (Thorpe 45). The Roman Empire never came out from it and this lead to the final downfall of the empire. Internal war and problems: It may be

The effects of marijuana on physical psychological & physiological Essay

The effects of marijuana on physical psychological & physiological functioning - Essay Example Research also shows that the earlier people start using drugs, the more likely it is for them to experiment with other drugs. Impact on physical functioning According to the National Institute of Drug Abuse (2010), marijuana use can lead to some immediate physical consequences like increase in heart rate by as much as 50 percent, depending on the amount of THC. The increased heartbeat and pulse rate can cause chest pain and heart failure especially if the individual is taking other legal or illegal drugs. The white of the eye changes to somewhat pink in color because of dilation of the vessels in the conjunctiva of the eye giving it a ‘blood-shot’ appearance. Other physical effects include drop of the pressure in the eyeball, sense of cold or hot hands and feet, relaxation of the muscles and dry mouth and throat. These effects are temporary and mostly disappear after a couple of hours. The unfiltered smoke inhaled into the lungs can cause cellular changes called metaplas ia, which are considered precancerous. Continual smoking of marijuana can cause tissue damage resulting in abnormal functioning of the lungs since the amount of tar inhaled by marijuana smokers is nearly three to five times more than that inhaled by tobacco smokers. In laboratory test, the tars from marijuana smoke have produced tumors when applied to animal skin (Venable, P.C., 2004). These studies suggest that it is likely that marijuana use can cause cancer if used for a prolonged period of time. In men, marijuana use has been found to decrease testosterone, cause breast enlargement and lead to sterility particularly if the drug use began during puberty. In women, marijuana leads to irregular menstrual cycles, depression, an increased testosterone level and the possibility for having children with moderate to severe physical and mental deficiencies ranging from learning disabilities to babies born with weak central nervous systems. Some research studies suggest that the use of ma rijuana during pregnancy may result in premature babies and in low birth weights (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). Impact on psychological functioning Marijuana has been found to be psychologically addictive and users have been found to have a hard time limiting their use. Although many argue that marijuana is not addictive, users who have stopped smoking it report irritability, inability to sleep, uncontrollable crying, mood swings and feelings of sickness during withdrawal. Long-term marijuana users crave for higher doses of the drug to get the same â€Å"high†. Although marijuana causes the users to feel elated and happy within minutes of using the drug, they often feel paranoid. One of the adverse reactions to marijuana is â€Å"acute panic anxiety†. People who have used marijuana describe this reaction as an extreme fear of â€Å"losing control† which causes panic causing them to often look out the windows, pace the floors or chew their fingernails (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2010). These symptoms usually disappear in a few hours. Impact

Development of Hospitality Housekeeping Technology

Development of Hospitality Housekeeping Technology Chapter-1 Introduction Housekeeping: Housekeeping refers to the management of duties and chores concerned within the running of a social unit. its conjointly wont to talk to the money allotted for such use. By extension, associate degree workplace or organization, moreover because the maintenance of storage device systems. A housekeeper is a person used to manage a social unit, and therefore the domestic employees. in step with Mrs Beetons Book of social unit Management, the house servant is second in command within the house and except in massive institutions, wherever theres a house steward, the house servant should think about herself because the immediate representative of her mistress. (Anon., n.d.) Chapter-2 P.D.A Introduction: A personal digital assistant (PDA), conjointly called a palmtop laptop, or personal information assistant, could be a mobile device that functions as a private data manager. PDAs area unit for the most part thought-about obsolete with the widespread adoption of smartphones. Nearly all current PDAs have the power to attach to the web. A personal organizer has Associate in Nursing electronic visual show, sanctioning it to incorporate an internet browser, all current models even have audio capabilities sanctioning use as a transportable media player, and conjointly sanctioning most of them to be used as mobile phones. Most PDAs will access the web, intranets or extranets via Wi-Fi or Wireless Wide space Networks. Most PDAs use touchscreen technology. the primary personal organizer was discharged in 1984 by Psion, the Organizer II. Followed by Psions Series three, in 1991, that began to gibe the a lot of acquainted personal organizer vogue. It conjointly had a full keyboard . The term personal organizer was initial used on Gregorian calendar month seven, 1992 by Apple laptop chief operating officer John Sculley at the patron physical science Show in metropolis, Nevada, concerning the Apple Newton. In 1994, IBM introduced the primary personal organizer with full movable practicality, the IBM Simon, which might even be thought-about the primary smartphone. Then in 1996, Nokia introduced a personal organizer with full movable practicality, the 9000 soul, that became the worlds popular personal organizer. The soul spawned a brand new class of PDAs: the PDA phone, currently known as smartphone. Another early entrant during this market was Palm, with a line of personal organizer product that began in March 1996. (Anon., n.d.) Features of P.D.A: A typical electronic device includes a touchscreen for coming into knowledge, a memory card slot for knowledge storage, and IrDA, Bluetooth and/or Wi-Fi. However, some PDAs might not have barely screen, mistreatment softkeys, a directional pad, and a numeric data input device or a thumb keyboard for input; this can be usually seen on telephones that square measure incidentally PDAs.In order to own the functions expected of a electronic device, a devices code usually includes a meeting calendar, a disruption list, Associate in Nursing address book for contacts, a calculator, and a few type of memoranda (or note) program. PDAs with wireless knowledge connections conjointly usually embrace Associate in Nursing email consumer and an online browser. (Anon., n.d.) P.D.A’s use in housekeeping: A personal digital assistant be use for alter sounds, buttons, tools and far additional. Use your personal digital assistant to suit your personal or business style. Store personal and business contacts. Record contact data into the address book, wherever its safely keep and simply accessible. Use cellular functions for causation and receiving calls or messages if your personal digital assistant may be a phone and organizer to Manage tasks. produce a To-do list thats displayed on your home page. Organize calendar for events, appointments or forthcoming tasks. Set a reminder alarm to present you a notice before forthcoming item.Calculate figures with the personal digital assistant calculator.Search the online. bestride the net to look pages or transfer information. Send or receive emails or text messages from cellular suppliers or instant courier services. Download and play music or videos. Take photos or record video. Type in Word to jot notes or w rite a document. Use surpass to create and write spreadsheets. Connect between your personal digital assistant and laptop or laptop computer to transfer information, save documents or synchronize all information. Chapter-3 Radio Frequency Identification Device. Uses of rfid in housekeeping: Hotels square measure still holding on to money-saving habits developed over the past few years, perpetually on the lookout for tactics to trim their budget whereas remaining effective. thats why the employment of radio-frequency identification microchips in edifice uniforms and linens square measure starting up as a money-saving investmentThe chips square measure designed to trace the movement of uniforms or linens to and from laundry areas so as to chop down on excess washes, continuation the lifetime of most materials. â€Å"The chips themselves outlive the clothes,† aforesaid William Beatty, linen manager for the Revel urban center. â€Å"One of the most important edges these chips offer USA is that it keeps our request straight. The previous system of exploitation bar codes and manually investigation linens is out.† (Anon., n.d.) Chapter-4 MICROFIBER Introduction:Microfiber or microfiber is fiber finer than one or one’s denier or decitex/thread. this is often 1/100th the diameter of a personalitys hair and 1/20th the diameter of a strand of silk. the foremost common varieties of microfibers are made of polyesters, polyamides (e.g., nylon, Kevlar, Nomex, trogamide), or a conjugation of polyester, polyamide, and polypropene (Prolen). Microfiber is employed to form mats, knits, and weaves for attire, upholstery, industrial filters, and cleansing product. The shape, size, and combos of artificial fibers ar chosen for specific characteristics, together with softness, toughness, absorption, water repellency, electrodynamics, and filtering capabilities. (Anon., n.d.) How microfibers help in cleaning: In cleansing product, microfiber are often 100 percent polyester, or a mix of polyester and polymeric amide (nylon). It are often each a woven product or a non woven product, the latter most frequently employed in restricted use or disposable cloths. In a number of the highest-quality materials for several cleansing applications, the fiber is split throughout the producing method to provide areas in every fiber. If one were to appear at a cross section of the many split microfiber material below extreme magnification, itd appear as if AN asterisk. it is the split fiber, and also the size of the individual filaments operating in conjunction with the areas between them that will the work. They develop and hold the mud and dirt, and absorb liquid.Unlike cotton, microfiber leaves no lint, the exception being some small suede blends, wherever the surface is automatically processed to provide a soft plush feel. (Anon., n.d.) Environmental and safety: Microfiber textiles tend to be ignitible if factory-made from hydrocarbons (polyester) or carbohydrates (cellulose) and emit deadly gases once burning, a lot of thus if aromatic (PET, PS, ABS) or treated with halogenated flame retarders and aromatic dyes.Their polyester and nylon stock square measure made up of petrochemicals, that dont seem to be a natural resource and dont seem to be perishable. However, if created out of plastic, theyre 100% reusable (Prolen).For most cleanup applications theyre designed for continual use instead of being discarded once use. (An exception is that the precise cleanup of optical parts wherever a wet material is drawn once across the thing and should not be used once more because the detritus collected and currently embedded within the material could scratch the optical surface.) In several house cleanup applications (washing floors, furniture, etc.) microfiber cleanup materials is used while not detergents or cleanup soluti ons which might preferably be required.There square measure environmental issues concerning this product coming into the oceanic organic phenomenon. However, no pesticides square measure used for manufacturing artificial fibres (in comparison to cotton). If these merchandise square measure manufactured from plastic yarn, the yarn is dope-dyed; i.e. no water is employed for colouring (as with cotton, wherever thousands of litres of water become contaminated) (Anon., n.d.) Chapter-5 Light and Climate Control Introduction: The system is integrated to the hotel’s management system permitting employees to examine the period standing of an area from occupancy to guest wants and requests. this permits employees to execute their tasks additional with efficiency.Within the space, a guest will show employees if the space must be created, if theres cleanup to be picked up, trigger associate alarm for emergencies or prefer ‘do not disturb’.Staff will monitor and management HVAC supported occupancy to scale back energy prices, attend to guest requests instantly for improved service, quick cool rooms for comfort once the guest checks in and monitor guest departure for cleanup service.In sensible terms, this suggests work doesn’t disturb guests and HVAC and lighting area unit neer wasting energy in unoccupied rooms.This clever system will mechanically switch all lighting, flip the climate system to a additional economic level and shut the blinds as before long because the g uest checks out. About light and climate control device: An possibility for mounting a multifunction electrical device outside the guest space is out there. this could be wont to notify edifice workers the space standing, as an example, â€Å"make up room†, â€Å"do not disturb† or â€Å"laundry pick-up required†. The multifunction electrical device may be used as a door bell. This door bell may be disabled if the guest has appointed the â€Å"do not disturb† operate of the system.Once within, the guest enters the space card key into the management systems card holder and this could then trigger multiple functions like open blinds, change thermostat to previous set level and switch on lighting. With the system able to perform multiple functions mechanically, the guest doesnt got to actively act with the system, because the system is interacting with them. This automation adds to guest comfort as they don’t got to operate multiple panels, setting the space to their f eeling.When the guest leaves the space taking the cardboard key with them, the space can mechanically perform a pack up sequence when a delay. at intervals the pack up sequence, the thermostat are set to a cost-effective mode, all lighting are changed, selected power points may be disabled, thus removing electronic devices on stand-by power and therefore the blinds may be closed insulating the space from potential activity.If the sleeping room incorporates a balcony door or window, the system may be set in order that if the guest opens either of those, then the air con system can mechanically switch or amendment to a desired mode. This energy saving feature will contribute to considerably reducing the price of running air con services unnecessarily. Motion detection at intervals the lavatory may be a helpful feature and prevents guests sorting out management panels within the dark. The operation of the detector may be obsessed on the time, permitting totally different functionalists between night and day. as an example, if occupancy is detected within the lavatory for the primary time throughout the night, the lighting can slowly work up to a coffee level, permitting guests to regulate. when no occupancy has been detected, the lighting can mechanically close up therein space. Chapter- 6 Mirror television Introduction: A Mirror TV or TV Mirror may be a tv device thats convertible to a mirror. Mirror TVs area unit typically used to avoid wasting area or conceal physical science in living areas like bedrooms and living rooms.Mirror TVs are often integrated into interior styles, together with sensible Homes and residential automation integration.The device consists of specially built mirror glass with AN digital display TV behind the reflected surface. The mirror is fastidiously polarized to permit a picture to transfer through the mirror,specified once the TV is off, the device seems like a mirror. Models embody High-Definition practicality, common with the digital display technology utilized in the screens. Some makers supply high-end input and output choices for entire-home A/V integration. (Anon., n.d.) (Anon., n.d.) The Mirror Barcelona: the mirror Barcelona is a hotel in Barcelona which is completely made up of mirrors which are televisions. It has 63 rooms and every room has Smart design rooms. TV LED (ultra-thin) 40 in room. TV LED (ultra-thin) 22 in W.C.Hairdryer Bed of 1.80 m Treca de Paris House Lighting scenes generation Room with alarm intrusion proximity card access control system Soundproofing of high quality Doors with automatic shelf system Automatic Do not disturb Independent efficient air-conditioning Free cable and wireless internet (50 Mb symmetric) (Anon., n.d.) Conclusion Hospitality may be a never ending business. It provides a wide scope of different opportunity in different fields. And the new upcoming trends are helping this industry develop and flourish. Cleanliness is just a part of housekeeping. The main objective of housekeeping is maintaining order and the new trends are helping the housekeeping department work efficiently and smoothly.

Biology :: Biology

Biology is the science of living systems. It is inherently interdisciplinary, requiring knowledge of the physical sciences and mathematics, although specialities may be oriented toward a group of organisms or a level of organization. BOTANY is concerned with plant life, ZOOLOGY with animal life, algology with ALGAE, MYCOLOGY with fungi, MICROBIOLOGY with microorganisms such as protozoa and bacteria, CYTOLOGY with CELLS, and so on. All biological specialties, however, are concerned with life and its characteristics. These characteristics include cellular organization, METABOLISM, response to stimuli, development and growth, and reproduction. Furthermore, the information needed to control the expression of such characteristics is contained within each organism. FUNDAMENTAL DISCIPLINES Life is divided into many levels of organization--atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, and populations. The basic disciplines of biology may study life at one or more of these levels. Taxonomy attempts to arrange organisms in natural groups based on common features. It is concerned with the identification, naming, and classification of organisms. The seven major taxonomic categories, or taxa, used in classification are kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Early systems used only two kingdoms, plant and animal, whereas most modern systems use five: MONERA (BACTERIA and BLUE-GREEN ALGAE), PROTISTA (PROTOZOA and the other ALGAE), FUNGI, PLANT, and ANIMAL. The discipline of ECOLOGY is concerned with the interrelationships of organisms, both among themselves and between them and their environment. Studies of the energy flow through communities of organisms and of the environment (the ecosystem approach) are especially valuable in assessing the effects of human activities. An ecologist must be knowledgeable in other disciplines of biology. Organisms respond to stimuli from other organisms and from the environment; behaviorists are concerned with these responses. Most of them study animals--as individuals, groups, or entire species--in describing ANIMAL BEHAVIOR patterns. These patterns include ANIMAL MIGRATION, courtship and mating, social organization, TERRITORIALITY, INSTINCT, and learning. When humans are included, biology overlaps with psychology and sociology. Growth and orientation responses of plants can also be studied in the discipline of behavior, although they are traditionally considered as belonging under development and PHYSIOLOGY, respectively. Descriptive and comparative EMBRYOLOGY are the classic areas of DEVELOPMENT studies, although postembryological development, particularly the aging process, is also examined. The biochemical and biophysical mechanisms that control normal development are of particular interest when they are related to birth defects, cancer, and other abnormalities. Inheritance of physical and biochemical characteristics, and the variations that appear from generation to generation, are the general subjects of GENETICS. The emphasis may be on improving domestic plants and animals through controlled breeding, or it may be on the more fundamental questions of molecular and cellular mechanisms of HEREDITY. A branch of biology growing in importance since the 1940s, molecular biology essentially developed out of genetics and biochemistry. It seeks to explain biological events by studying the molecules within

America and the challenges of religious diversity Essay

Religion and Theory Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The world today is dynamic such that there is need to recognize the diversity of the people that live in it. People across the world are different in terms of culture, religion and race. However, there are few people that have consistently failed to accommodate diverse beliefs and opinions. One of the diversity factor that has come under sharp focus is religion. All over the world, there are people with special religious sensitivities and thus the need to accommodate diverse opinions when it comes to religion. Such people should be allowed to promote and practice their religious beliefs and practices with little or no interference. However, this freedom should be limited to the fact that the said religious beliefs and practices do not infringe on the rights of other people in the society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The practice of religious persecutions started man7y years ago when certain religious beliefs and practices were discouraged. The consequences of practicing the discouraged religious practices included harassment and illegal persecution. Today, it is very difficult to identify individuals with special sensitivities and sensibilities from the street. However, there are certain factors that are common with certain religious following. Different religious groups have different code of dressing. This might make it easier to identify an individual with religious sensitivity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   According to Wuthnow, (2011), religious groups such as the Islamic faith require that women dress modestly. Inn more conservative Muslims, women are required to wear veils covering most of their body. This is to reinforce their religious beliefs regarding chastity and behaviour. Muslim men also wear long flowing gowns which also would make them easy to identify. Almost every ethno-religious subcultures ranging from mainstream religious following such as the Hindu to smaller ethno-religious subcultures such as the Amish have a specific dress code. However, the dressing code is not the only way that one can identify people with religious sensitivities. The important thing for every individual in the society is to learn and respect the divergent opinion of the general populous when it comes to religion. References Wuthnow, R. (2011). America and the challenges of religious diversity. Princeton University Press. Source document

a major health issue and is often recognised as one of the major causes of avoidable mortality and morbidity in Western society The WritePass Journal

a major health issue and is often recognised as one of the major causes of avoidable mortality and morbidity in Western society 1.   Introduction a major health issue and is often recognised as one of the major causes of avoidable mortality and morbidity in Western society 1.   Introduction2.   ConclusionRelated 1.   Introduction Alcohol consumption is acknowledged worldwide as a major health issue and is often recognised as one of the major causes of avoidable mortality and morbidity in Western society (Wechsler, Dowdall, Davenport, Castillo, 1995). Almost 4% of all deaths are attributed to alcohol (World Health Organization, 2009) and in relation to other causes of death, alcohol can be considered as a significantly higher contributor. For example, HIV/AIDS accounted for 3.5% of deaths worldwide, violence for 1% and tuberculosis for 2.5% (World Health Organization, 2004). This is reflected in increased cost for health care systems. In 2008, it was estimated that alcohol harm cost the National Health Service in England  £2.7 billion, this was a significant increase from estimates for 2003 of  £1.7 billion (National Health Service, 2010). The harmful effects of high alcohol intake have been well documented (Hingson, Heeren, Winter, Wechsler, 2005) (Schulenberg, Wadsworth, OMalley, Bachman, Johnston, 1996). Individuals who drink too much can suffer from physical problems, such as liver cirrhosis, heart failure and certain cancers, but also from social issues, such as interpersonal violence, sexual assault, vandalism, and driving accidents (Anderson Baumberg, 2006) (Rehm, Room, Graham, Monteiro, Gmel, Sempos, 2003). Definitions of alcohol abuse have also focused on social issues related to drinking; the Diagnostic and Statistical manual of Mental disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2000) defines abuse as â€Å"a maladaptive pattern of substance use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, often manifested as a failure to fulfil obligations, use in physically hazardous situations and related legal, social or interpersonal problems†. The Government recommends that adult men should not regularly drink more than 3-4 units of alcohol per day and adult women should not regularly drink more than 2-3 units a day. However, in Great Britain, 31% of men and 20% women drink more than the advised weekly limits. Furthermore, 8% of men and 2% of women drink above the levels regarded as harmful, namely 50 units a week for men and 35 units for women (Office of National Statistics, 2008). Age is an important variable contributing to alcohol consumption, with the highest intake recorded in young adults (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004) particularly in those between 18 and 20 years old (May, 1992) (Webb, Ashton, Kelly, Kamali, 1996). Drinking as a young adult has significant health consequences (Ham Hope, 2003). The prevalence of drinking amongst young people does not only pose serious issues to the young people involved, but the consequences of their drinking can also have an effect on a their family and society as a whole (Oei Morawska, 2004). Alcohol consumption is a significantly greater problem within the student population because alcohol forms part of the university culture (Crundall, 1995). Drunken behaviour is accepted as normal at many student events (Davey Clark, 1991). It has been found that alcohol is the most likely substance to be abused amongst the student population (Prendergast, 1994) and in comparison to non-university peers worldwide, students engage in riskier alcohol-related behaviour (Johnston, OMalley, Bachman, 2001) (OMalley Johnston, 2002) (Wiki, Kuntsche, Gmel, 2010) (Kypri, Cronin, Wright, 2005), drink more heavily (Kypri, Cronin, Wright, 2005) (Dawson, Grant, Stinson, Chou, 2004) and exhibit more clinically significant alcohol-related problems (Slutske, 2005). It has been recorded that student consumption of alcohol is consistent with the rates of the general population in the UK, which is estimated to include 90% of adults consuming alcohol weekly (Department of Health, 2003). However, the amount of alcohol that is consumed by students has been suggested to pose significant risks. Sociability has been identified as the major benefit to alcohol use. Specifically young people indicated that the reasons why they drink are for fun, to be happy, to gain confidence, to be cool and simply for something to do (Oei Morawska, 2004). However, for students, hangovers were featured as the most negative aspect of drinking large amounts rather than longer term risks (Crundall, 1995). The students are also aware of the negative impact alcohol can have on their studies and finances (Bewick, Mulhern, Barkham, Trusler, Hill, Stiles, 2008). In America, one third of students were classified as suffering from alcohol abuse according to the DSM-IV-TR definition (as stated above) (Clements, 1999) and 6% reported symptoms of alcohol dependence (Knight, Wechsler, Kuo, Seibring, Weitzman, Schuckit, 2002). Fewer than 4% of those students who met the DSM-IV-TR criteria for alcohol abuse or dependence were found to be willingly to pursue treatment (Clements, 1999) (OHare, 1997). Within the United Kingdom, a review of studies measuring undergraduate drinking concluded that 52% of men and 43% of women reported drinking above the recommended limits (Gill, 2002). Webb, Ashton, Kelly, Kamali (1996) also found that 15% of a UK student sample drank at hazardous levels. For men this exceeded 51 units per week and 36 units for women. Increased alcohol consumption and binge drinking are not only related to health issues, but also could result in negative consequences for the individual, such as academic failure, unintended pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, property damage, and criminal consequences that jeopardize future job prospects (Berkowitz Perkins, 1986) (Hingson, Heeran, Zakocs, Kopstein, Wechsler, 2002) (Wechsler, Dowdall, Davenport, Castillo, 1995). Students do not only experience consequences of their own drinking but often experience consequences of others drinking (Rhodes, et al., 2009). In addition to harmful effects on the individual, there are second-hand consequences for fellow students, ranging from disrupted study and sleep, to physical and sexual assault (Donovan, Jessor, Costa, 1993) (Hingson, Heeran, Zakocs, Kopstein, Wechsler, 2002) (Perkins, 2002) making students more at risk of negative consequences from alcohol consumption. The hazardous consequences of binge drinking felt by many students arise from the disabling effects of consuming a large amount of alcohol over a short period (Oei Morawska, 2004). The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism advisory council approved the following definition for binge drinking: â€Å"A ‘binge’ is a pattern of drinking alcohol that brings blood alcohol content to about 0.08 gram-per cent or above. For the typical adult, this pattern corresponds to consuming 5 or more drinks (male), or 4 or more drinks (female) in about 2 hours† (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2004). Adams, Barry, and Fleming (1996) identified that while the number of drinks consumed per occasion was an important risk factor for death from injury, but that frequency of consumption was not. Binge drinking students are more likely to suffer from negative consequences related to than non-bingers such as academic problems, engage in high risk sex, sustai n injuries, overdose on alcohol and drive while intoxicated (Wechsler, Dowdall, Davenport, Castillo, 1995) (Wechsler, Lee, Kuo, Lee, 2000) (Wechsler, Kuo, Seibring, Nelson, Lee, 2002) (Jennison, 2004) (Vik, Carrello, Tate, Field, 2000). Despite negative alcohol effects, research suggests that a large proportion of students are placing themselves at risk by engaging in binge drinking. There are notable gender differences in binge drinking, as women are more likely to initiate drinking when they feel angry or worthless and as an escape from their troubles. On the other hand, for men incentives are to gain peer approval or not to show fear (Oei Morawska, 2004). In Europe, Kuntsche, Rehm, Gmel (2004) concluded that men were more likely to binge drink and that peer pressure was one of the strongest influencing factors. Similar findings have been reported for UK undergraduates, (Wechsler, Dowdall, Davenport, Rimm, 1995) recorded 50% of male students to be binge drinking (around 8 UK units per session) and 39% of women (≈6.5 units) at least once in the preceding fortnight. Pickard et al (2000) also found that 50% of men binge drink. However, they found more women were likely to binge drinking (63%). Research suggests that heavy drinking among students is most likely to occur in positive social contexts as opposed to negative contexts (Carey, 1995) (Carey, 1993). There are again gender differences in these consumption patterns. For example, University men tend to drink more often than their female peers in positive situations, such as those involving cues to drink and pleasant times with friends (Carrigan, Samoluk, Stewart, 1998). Other findings suggest that social contexts can discriminate between heavier and lighter male student drinkers, whereas the strongest predictor of discrimination between heavier and lighter drinking university women is emotional pain (Thombs, Beck, Mahoney, 1995). Such gender differences suggest that drinking behaviour may be motivated by different subjective beliefs regarding the consequences of alcohol consumption for men and women. The beliefs people hold about the effects of consuming alcohol are referred to as alcohol outcome expectancies (AOE) (Goldman, Del Boca, Darkes, 1999) and include areas such as assertion, affective change and tension reduction (Young, Connor, Ricciardelli, Saunders, 2006). According to social-learning theory, drinking is a goal-directed behaviour that ranges from abstinence to alcohol dependence, and the initiation, maintenance, and development of drinking patterns is assumed to be directed by similar learning principles (Abrams Niaura, 1987) (Bandura, 1969) (Jones, Corbin, Fromme, 2001) (Maisto, Carey, Bradizza, 1999). Within this theoretical framework, alcohol outcome expectancies are considered to be critical determinants of different consumption patterns and a result of indirect and direct drinking experiences. These beliefs are particularly important when experiences with alcohol are less developed. For instance, young childrens expectancies of alcohol are best described as indeterminate and diffuse and their beliefs â€Å"crystallize† with age (Miller, Smith, Goldman, 1990). These expectancies influence not only present behaviour, but also the perceptions of later experiences with alcohol, which may strengthen the original expectancies (Oei Morawska, 2004). AOE have been shown to be better predictors of various drinking patterns that demographics and background variables (Brown, 1985) (Christiansen Goldman, 1983). Expectancies have consistently been found to be associated with current alcohol consumption in students (Leigh Stacy, 1993), community samples (Brown, Goldman, Inn, Anderson, 1980) and adolescents (Christiansen, Smith, Roehling, Goldman, 1989). Expectancies were found to predict future drinking in adolescents after 1 year (Christiansen, Smith, Roehling, Goldman, 1989), 2 years (Smith, Goldman, Greenbaum, Christiansen, 1995) and 9 years (Stacy, Newcomb, Bentler, 1991). Research has shown that individuals with positive alcohol expectancies drink more alcohol and are at risk of misusing alcohol (Connor, Young, Williams, Ricciardelli, 2000) (Young Oei, 1996). Other research has provided evidence that expectancies partially mediate other variables (e.g. temperament, alcohol knowledge, etc.) that influence alcohol consumption (Smith, Goldman, Greenbaum, Christiansen, 1995) (Kline, 1996) (Scheier Botvin, 1997), the extent to which other variables influence drinking through expectancy ranges between 17% and 50% (Greenbaum, Brown, Friedman, 1995). The belief about alcohol’s power to change behaviour, rather than its true physical effects determine the behavioural effects of alcohol (Leigh, 1989) and also expectancies concerning the use of may operate differently in different social situations (Bot, Engels, Knibbe, 2005). Lee, Greely, and Oei (1999) found that drinking was related not only to positive expectancies, but also to negative expectancies regarding its effects and it is now well established that people hold both positive and negative alcohol-related expectancies (Fromme, Stroot, Kaplan, 1993) (Leigh Stacy, 1993) (Chen, Grube, Madden, 1994) (McMahon, Jones, ODonnell, 1994). Positive alcohol outcome expectancies refer to peoples’ motives for drinking and their perceptions of the positive outcomes associated with drinking alcohol. They have been shown to be causally related to alcohol consumption in both adults and adolescents (Christiansen, Smith, Roehling, Goldman, 1989) (Dunn Goldman, 1998) (Smith, Goldman, Greenbaum, Christiansen, 1995) and also to problem drinking (Lewis ONeil, 2000). Negative expectancies refer to peoples’ motives to abstain from drinking alcohol or to limit consumption. Earleywine (1995) found that only positive, not negative, expectancies were related to intentions to drink and drinking behaviour. However, Werner (1993) found both positive and negative outcome expectancies and their subjective evaluations accounted for a significant portion of the variability in drinking patterns and health problems reported by students. Further support has been found, using a variety of different instruments, that negative expec tancies significantly improve the ability to predict current drinking (Fromme, Stroot, Kaplan, 1993) (Leigh Stacy, 1993) (McMahon, Jones, ODonnell, 1994). These inconsistent findings might be attributable to different explanations of negative expectancies. For example, Leigh (1989) suggested that expectancies can separated into short-term, direct effects and longer-term negative effects of drinking. The comparison between positive and negative expectancies is also confounded by the fact that the expected positive effects are more proximal than the expected negative effects. For example, positive expectations, such as feeling more sociable, happen at the time of drinking compared to negative expectations (such as hangovers) which happen as a consequence of drinking. These expectancies follow the pattern of actual alcohol effects (Earleywine Martin, 1993). While the vast majority of research has focused on participants’ expectancies for the effect alcohol has on themselves, the alcohol-related expectancies that a person has for others have been shown to influence drinking behaviour as well (Borjesson Dunn, 2001). Participants consistently expected alcohol to affect other people more than themselves for both positive effects (such as social or sexual enjoyment) and negative effects, such as impairment. However, moderate and heavy drinkers expected as much social/physical pleasure from alcohol as they expected others to receive (Rohsenow, 1983). Men expected themselves to become calmer and happier in comparison to others when drinking, but also that others would become more disinhibited and to generally misbehave compared to themselves (Gustafson, 1989). Sher, Walitzer, Wood, Brent (1991) found that men reported significantly stronger outcome expectancies than women for social lubrication, activity enhancement, and performance e nhancement in other women. These findings were replicated with a separate sample of men and women in a subsequent longitudinal study (Sher, Wood, Wood, Raskin, 1996). This study is aimed to investigate the relationship between participants AOEs and those they hold for their friends further in a student population. It is, also, aimed to investigate the relationship between AOEs and alcohol consumption. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) is a simple ten-question test developed by the World Health Organization as a simple method of screening for excessive drinking. The first edition of this manual was published in 1989 and was subsequently updated in 1992. Questions 1 to 3 concern alcohol consumption, 4 to 6 relate to alcohol dependence and 7 to 10 consider alcohol related problems. A score of more than 8 for men or more than 7 for women indicates a strong likelihood of hazardous alcohol consumption and a score of 20 or more is suggestive of alcohol dependence. Alcohol outcome expectancies were measured using the Comprehensive Effects of Alcohol Questionnaire (CEOA) (Fromme Stroot, 1993). This questionnaire assesses both positive and negative discrete expectancies of alcohols effects on physiological, psychological, and behavioural outcomes. Participants rated 38 items on a fours of positive outcome expectancy items include: I would feel energetic or I would feel unafraid. Examples of negative outcome expectancy items include: â€Å"I would be clumsy;† â€Å"I would take risks† or â€Å"I would feel guilty†. Scores for expected outcomes are determined by summing relevant subscale responses, allowing two overall scores to be calculated for each participant: positive expectations, negative expectations, and a total score for all expectations. The CEOA was found to have adequate internal consistency and temporal stability, and criterion and construct validity in a student sample (Fromme Stroot, 1993). For the purpose of the present experiment, individual alcohol outcome expectancies were assessed using the standard CEOA questionnaire, additionally, participants were asked to respond to CEOA items on the basis of answering for a chosen friend. Examples of friend’s outcome expectancy items included: â€Å"They would act sociably† or â€Å"Their senses would be dulledâ€Å". This study found no significant differences in gender in AUDIT scores. Therefore the null hypothesis can be accepted. With regards to gender and alcohol consumption, findings from this study found only slight but non-significant differences between the consumption of men and women, with women drinking only slightly more than men. Although similar results were found in the study by (Labrie, Migliuri, Kenney, Lac, 2010), their study was focused on participants with a family history of excessive alcohol consumption. It was only within participants with a family history of excessive alcohol consumption that gender differences were found. The findings in the present study were inconsistent with the findings of (Prendergast, 1994) who found it more likely for men to abuse alcohol than women. However, this study was a review of previous literature (1980 to 1994) and more recent research evidence would suggest that gender differences are decreasing (Keyesa, Grantic, Hasin, 2007). In additi on, this study used an American sample and findings may not be applicable to those in the UK. This suggests that women are at greater risk of alcohol disorders, with 6.4% of men compared to 11.3% of women identified as being dependent on alcohol according to AUDIT score. In comparison to the general population men in this study were less likely to be classed as drinking above hazardous levels (8% vs. 6.4%) whereas many more women were drinking at these levels (2% vs. 11.3%) (Office of National Statistics, 2008). This suggests that the population used in this study is not representative of the general population in regards to dependent levels of drinking which could result in unique findings. Participant’s alcohol expectations were found to significantly affect AUDIT score and therefore we can reject the null hypothesis. This is similar to the results of (Leigh Stacy, 1993). It was also found that positive and negative outcome expectancies accounted for a significant portion of the variability in drinking patterns, similarly to other previous research (Werner, Walker, Greene, 1993). As with previous research, it has been found that increased positive AOEs relate to higher consumption. Alternatively, in this sample, negative AOEs also appear to be related to increased alcohol consumption. It has been suggested that positive expectancies are immediately accessible and therefore contribute to initiation of alcohol use. Whereas, negative expectancies are delayed and shaped by subsequent drinking, therefore their influence may be related to persistent drinking (Sher, Wood, Wood, Raskin, 1996) (Bauman, Fisher, Bryan, Chenoweth, 1985) (Kuntsche, Knibbe, Engels, Gmel, 2007). In this study, participants were drawing on memories of drinking experience to shape their expectancies. This could have allowed them to evaluate AOEs equally, with proximal and distal effects playing a less important role. The findings underscore the importance of attitudes and strength of beliefs, particularly in identifying those at high risk for problem drinking and adverse health consequences. A multiple regression indicated that a person’s AOEs for the Risk and Aggression subscale are a significant predictor of AUDIT score and also expectancies explained 21.6% of the variance in scores. This appears consistent with the findings of Fromme and D’Amico (2000) who found AOEs explained 28% of the variance in quantity of alcohol consumed, and 15% of the variance in frequency of drinking. Ham, Stewart, Norton, Hope (2005) found the Risk and Aggression subscale of AOEs to be related to alcohol consumption in adolescents, specifically drinks per week. However, they found this was not the only subscale related to alcohol consumption but also an association was found with Liquid Courage, Sociability and Sexuality expectations. Alcohol consumptions relationship with expectancies seems to be especially true for the expectancies of both physical and social pleasure, relaxation and tension reduction and possibly enhanced sexual functioning (Gustafson, 1989).   This sugg ests that the relationship between expectancies and AUDIT score is mediated by the population being studied and what is specifically been measured. Due to different measures of expectancies it is difficult to compare results directly. Measurements can relate to a range of expectancies; from general expectancies to specific expectancies. This is also true for measures of alcohol consumption. The AUDIT does not only address participant’s consumption but also alcohol dependence and alcohol related problems.   It is also possible that some drinkers use expectancies as a justification for drinking, rather than solely associated with drinking. Gustafson (1989) found a positive correlation between the strength of expectancies and how desirable it was rated as an outcome of drinking. Therefore people could be drinking to achieve expectations rather than expecting certain consequences of drinking. A logistic regression indicated that the Sexuality, Risk and Aggression, and Self-Perception subscales reliably predicted using alcohol at risky levels. Expectancies explained between 22.3% and 32% of the variance in risk classification, and 83% of the predictions were correct. Ham, Stewart, Norton, Hope (2005) found that 44% of the variance in high level drinking to be attributed to AOEs. This higher level could be due to the sample population used in the study. For the current sample, there were no effects of AOEs on AUDIT score for men (see below), and therefore the variance in risk classification reflects upon women’s expectations for alcohol.   Similarly this could explain why Ham, Stewart, Norton and Hope (2005)   found that greater the expectancies for Self-Perception and Cognitive and Behavioural Impairment, the more likely participants were to have alcohol related problems, this was consistent with findings of Lee, Greely, Oei (1999). Also Gustafson (1989) found that high consumers have stronger AOE and that all expectancies, bar Sexuality, were related to higher levels of alcohol consumption. These results suggest that certain expectancies are related to risky drinking, however, the expectancies that reliably predict risk is determined by the population that is being investigated. Further to this, some research has found that expectancies did not appear to be related to consumption in problem drinkers (Oei, Fergusson, Lee, 1998) this suggest that further research needs to be conducted into the relationship between level of alcohol consumption and AOEs. There was no effect of AOEs on AUDIT score for men. However, there was an effect for women, therefore we can reject the null hypothesis. This does not follow previous research as it has been found expectations that alcohol would improve social situations had the highest correlations with actual alcohol use in men. Men alcohol use corresponded to the belief that men in general have positive personality changes due to drinking, and that men drink to relieve social anxiety (Borjesson Dunn, 2001). These findings appear inconsistent with research by (Brown, Goldman, Inn, Anderson, 1980), who found that women expected more positive social consequences from drinking alcohol, whereas men were more likely to expect potentially aggressive behaviour and more negative expectations. This difference could be because of gender differences within the population used. Although the sample population is similar to the UK populations with more men than women (UK; 51% women, Study; 62% women) (Office o f National Statistics, 2008), it is inconsistent with that of Loughborough University (62% men) (The Complete University Guide, 2011). The choice of women to attend a predominantly male University may have affected the results as University choice may be determined by personal characteristics and lifestyle choices. There was a relationship between participants and friends AOEs, specifically for the same type of expectations (positive to positive and negative to negative), and therefore the null hypothesis can be rejected. A modified version of the CEOA was used to identify friend’s expectations and therefore its individual validity and reliability has not been tested. This means that the data can only be indicative of a relationship, but similar results have been found before (Rohsenow, 1983). Participants expected alcohol to affect other people more than themselves. However, this was more pronounced for negative effects. People typically drink more or less in response to the consumption rates of others in their drinking environment (Caudill Marlatt, 1975) (Lied Marlatt, 1979), especially when people are friendly (Collins, Parks, Marlatt, 1985). The belief that others will experience more AOEs effects than themselves, a person’s own alcohol consumption could be effected. Indivi duals could be drinking more than to others because they underestimate the effect alcohol is having on themselves in regards to others. Research has identified social context and peer influence as risk factors for problematic student drinking (Ham Hope, 2003). The current study is limited because it does not investigate the relationship of specific expectancy subscales. It has previously been found, however, that, others who consumed large amounts of alcohol were seen as more relaxed, less inhibited, more aggressive, and less attractive than those who drank none or little (Edgar Knight, 1994). And those who themselves drank less were more likely to expect others to become more aggressive and relaxed than their moderate or heavy drinking counterparts (Rohsenow, 1983). When looking at different levels of alcohol consumption, it was found that there was no relationship between participants and friends expectations for those not drinking at risky levels. For those classified as hazardous drinkers there was only a relationship between the same type of expectancies (positive and positive, negative and negative). In opposition to this there was a relationship between opposite expectations for those classified as dependent drinkers. Therefore the null hypothesis can be rejected. Alcohol expectancies have been shown to correlate with all levels of drinking (Goldman, 1999).   The lack of defining an specific amount of alcohol in this study, instead specifying to base assumptions on a friend consuming the same amount as the participant, could have affected the results. Therefore those drinking low levels of alcohol are also rating their friends drinking low levels which may not be representative of normal drinking. Those drinking at dependent levels may h ave been more aware of drinking large amounts because they had previously completed the AUDIT. Specifically those drinking at dependent levels expected that their friends would have more negative expectations than themselves. Students are suggested to be aware of the negative consequences of drinking (Bewick, Mulhern, Barkham, Trusler, Hill, Stiles, 2008), but choose to ignore them in relation to their own drinking. More research needs to be conducted into the relationship between this relationship, specifically in respect to reducing high drinking levels by making people fully aware of the negative effects of drinking. There was no overall significant effects of men expectations for their self and friends expectations, however there was an effect of positive AOEs on friends positive AOEs. For women there was an effect of total expectations on friends expectations, specifically participants own negative AOEs and friends negative AOEs. Therefore the null hypothesis can be rejected. Expectancies of alcohol use are theorised to develop through learning from repeated experience with alcohol, either personally or observed. Therefore, an individual’s own perception of the consequences of drinking becomes an important factor in the associations (Bauman, Fisher, Bryan, Chenoweth, 1985) (Jones McMahon, 1992). In most cultures and societies, one of the most secure observations is that consequences surrounding consumption are tolerated more in men than in women (McMahon, Jones, ODonnell, 1994). This suggests that alcohol behaviours would generally be judged more by the individual if they were female than if they were male. These differences could be due to the population being sampled with women being less influenced by the way alcohol behaviour is perceived. Also it has been observed that women in the population score higher on the AUDIT than men, contrary to that of the general population. It is important that future research takes into account other variables that affect the relationship between alcohol use and AOEs. This can then be used to better understand of why so many people drink risky levels despite the knowledge that it can be harmful. Specifically it is suggested that the desirability of AOEs is an important factor in understanding the relationship of expectancies to drinking (Leigh, 1987). 2.   Conclusion The aim of this study was to investigate relationship between participants AOEs and those they hold for their friends in a student population. It was, also, aimed to investigate the relationship between AOEs and alcohol consumption. Participant’s AOEs were found to significantly affect AUDIT score (F(46,71) = 1.651, p 0.005, partial ÃŽ ·Ã‚ ² = 0.517). There was no effect of AOEs on AUDIT score for men(F(31,15) = 0.821, p = 0.690, partial ÃŽ ·Ã‚ ² = 0.629). However, there was an effect for women (F(36,34) = 1.818, p 0.05, partial ÃŽ ·Ã‚ ² = 0.658). There was a relationship between participants and friends AOEs (F(46,71) = 3.009, p 0.005, partial ÃŽ ·Ã‚ ² = 0.661). The findings of the present study are consistent with previous studies that have shown AOEs to be significant predictors of alcohol consumption (Fromme, Stroot, Kaplan, 1993). This highlights the importance of investigating the effects of AOEs within specific populations, and how AOEs can be controlled to effect alcohol consumption.

The Impact of Mongol Invasion in Ancient Arab

The Impact of Mongol Invasion in Ancient Arab Introduction The golden age was a liberating period of Arab civilization. This period marked the defeat of Israeli crusaders and the elimination of the Ismaili Fatimid threat in the Middle East. The establishment of the Khwarazmian Empire, in Persia, also strengthened Arab civilization because it protected Islam from external threats, attacks, and influences (Morgan 11).Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Impact of Mongol Invasion in Ancient Arab specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, this peace only lasted for a short period before the Mongol empire invaded Southwest Asia. In the wake of their arrival, they changed the social dynamics of the Middle East by causing untold destruction and despair that was unequal to any other global event. Genghis Khan is a common name that emerges whenever historians explain the history of the Mongol empire. Indeed, it is during his time that the empire witnessed the greates t expansion in ancient history (Morgan 4). From a small tribe of nomads in North and central Asia, Khan was able to transform the nomadic lifestyles of a few tribesmen into a powerful empire (Mongol empire). Particularly, Khan used terror as his most effective weapon (Dutch 3). He often spared colonies that did not fight him, but massacred anybody who attempted to oppose his expansion. His entry into the Arab world was not extensive as other parts of the Asian continent. In fact, the University of Calgary (4) says most parts of the Muslim world did not experience Khan’s terror. However, in 1255, this short-lived peace with Khan ended. This paper explores the destruction of Arab civilization and Islam under the Mongol empire. In detail, this paper shows that under the leadership of Khan’s brother, Hulagu Khan, the Mongol empire destroyed Arab civilization through the destruction of Islamic infrastructure. Its main targets were Persia, Egypt, Syria, and modern-day Iraq. This paper also shows that much of the Muslim world did not have the capability of resisting Mongol aggression and therefore fell into Mongol rule quickly.Advertising Looking for term paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This changed the dynamics of the Islamic faith, as the Mongol empire destroyed educational facilities, mosques, libraries, and other structures that supported the faith. Comprehensively, this paper highlights the â€Å"near death† of Islam and Arab civilization under Mongol rule. Destruction of Islamic Infrastructure Historical excerpts say Hulagu Khan had a very deep resentment for Islam and its antecedents (Morgan 111). The University of Calgary (4) says this hatred came from some of his close confidants (with predominantly Christian and Buddhist influences) who influenced the formulation of Mongol policies. Through Khan’s loyal lieutenants, he did not spare any kind of I slamic support structure. For example, when they conquered Baghdad, a strong army of over 150,000 soldiers destroyed Mosques, Islamic libraries, and religious sites (Morgan 10). Sequentially, this section of the paper explores these different forms of destruction. Destruction of Educational Institutions Before the Mongol empire set foot in the Middle East, Islam thrived because of the vibrancy of its educational institutions (Madrasa) which taught Islamic doctrines to new generations. However, when the Mongols came, they destroyed these institutions and burned down any educational material that existed in them. For example, Baghdad was an important cultural and spiritual center where Muslims from around the world gathered and lived. The city had more than 30 universities, which taught Islamic doctrines to the greater Arab population (University of Calgary 14). Among these universities was Mustansiriya College, which was a prominent Islamic Centre for excellence (University of Calgar y 15). From the destruction of such educational institutions, historians estimate that a lot of Islamic knowledge was lost through this invasion. The Mongols destroyed the libraries, burned books, and killed Islamic scholars and educators. Through this act, they aimed to curtail the growth of Islamic doctrines, which Muslim scholars safeguarded in their educational institutions. Morgan says,Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Impact of Mongol Invasion in Ancient Arab specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More â€Å"On their way, they destroyed the Assassin’s (Hashishin) sanctuary at Alamut and sacked its library where the Assassins had collected techniques of murder and terror, thus making it impossible for future generations to gain any in-depth knowledge of the Islamic doctrine and nefarious activities of the religion† (27). Dutch (13) says the extent of the destruction was very extensive, such that Bagh dad’s rivers choked with ink from the destroyed libraries. This level of destruction had a huge toll on Islamic educational infrastructure through the loss of Islamic knowledge/doctrines. Destruction of Agricultural Infrastructure Most of the destruction of agricultural infrastructure occurred in Baghdad. Indeed, agricultural investments that spanned thousands of years established functional canal networks that supported agriculture in the large semi-arid city. Few historians dispute the fact that this development marked the helm of the golden age (Morgan 21). Baghdad’s success in the agricultural front was only a highlight of the city’s stature as an intellectual, cultural, and economic Islamic capital. Certainly, scholars, scientists, Muslim philosophers, and experts were attracted to the Arabian capital, as the center of Islamic dominance. It was therefore unsurprising when the Baghdad invasion marked the decline of Arab civilization and the golden age becaus e in the wake of the destruction, many Islamic successes in science and philosophy ended. The destruction of agricultural technology, which Arabs had built for hundreds of years, also affected the Islamic population, in terms of human population sustainability. This type of destruction was a tactical strategy by the Mongol empire to starve Arab cities by denying them food supply. For example, military personnel cut canal pipes that supplied water to the agricultural fields of Mesopotamia (the infrastructure had taken thousands of years to build) (Morgan 26). They destroyed this infrastructure with no intention of repairing it. Therefore, most of the canal pipes contained poisoned water, which people could not sustain the Muslim population in Baghdad.Advertising Looking for term paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Some survivors therefore had to flee the city because it lacked its agricultural lifeline. In fact, the University of Calgary (11) says the destruction of agricultural technology/infrastructure was so severe that the people could not easily restore it (its restoration only happened in the 20th century). The University of Calgary (11) further says the agricultural infrastructure in Iraq was very different from how we know present-day Iraq. The destruction of agricultural fields and technology is significant in understanding the decline of Arab civilization in the wake of the Mongol invasions because agriculture supported Arab civilization for more than 5,000 years (Morgan 30). To explain this view, Dutch says, â€Å"The Mongol invasions and their subsequent rule in the lands, east of the Euphrates, left a legacy of shattered cities, population decline, and overturned technology that undercut the basis for prosperity and success that had sustained the Middle East for many years† (112). The Mongols had a very casual attitude towards agriculture because they were mainly nomadic people. They therefore felt no remorse for destroying Arab agricultural fields, which had taken a lot of time and investments to establish. Their primary concern was the defeat of their enemies. In fact, the empire wanted the fields to remain unused to ensure the surviving population did not regroup. The extent of this devastation does not match with any other type of devastation in ancient or present-day history (Morgan 26). Comprehensively, the destruction of agricultural fields created a sense of hopelessness among the population. In fact, most of the surviving population had to look towards the Far East for support. They were at the mercy of the Mongols. Furthermore, with a population decline of up to 90%, understandably, Islam was on its â€Å"deathbed.† Previous conquests in other parts of the Middle East, and the successful assimilation of natives into Buddhism, left on ly some parts of the Middle East holding on to Islam. Particularly, North Africa was the last frontier of the Arab world, which openly practiced Islam. Observers say if the Mongol empire invaded Egypt, it would have easily conquered Islam (Dutch 31).However, this did not happen, after Egyptian Mamluks successfully resisted Mongol invasion. This event had a significant impact on the world’s history because historians project that if the Mongol empire successfully invaded Egypt, and gained access to a greater part of North Africa, it would have been difficult for European colonizers to defeat them in the scramble for Africa (Dutch 32). The destruction of Damascus and Baghdad was therefore the last frontier for Mongol invasion. Looting Most Islamic regimes had undertaken previous conquests in Europe and other parts of Asia. They accumulated a lot of wealth, which they used to finance their empires. When the Mongol empire invaded the Middle East, most existing Arab empires had ac cumulated a lot of wealth and invested the same in science and technology. The Mongol empire looted most of this wealth and repatriated the same to their colonies. For example, the empire ransacked the palaces and took all the gold and other forms of material wealth from their rulers. This act left their enemies weak (Dutch 31). Psychological Scar A significant success of the Mongol empire, in destabilizing the Muslim faith, was to instill suspicion and fear among the Muslim people. Morgan (44) particularly pays a close attention to the Baghdad invasion and says the invasion dented a serious psychological blow to the surviving inhabitants of Baghdad. Certainly, the Mongol invasion instilled suspicion and fear among surviving Islamic people who looked inward and became afraid to support any type of religious conflict. Consequently, they became suspicious that they would be caught practicing Islam and instead adopted a very conservative lifestyle (a sharp contrast from the vibrant Isl amic lifestyle that preceded the Mongolian invasion in Baghdad). Morgan (44) says, before the invasion, there was an intellectual flowering of Islam in the greater region of Baghdad, but the invasion stifled this freedom. In fact, Dutch (15) says after the Mongols destroyed the mosques, they replaced them with Buddhist temples and instilled fear on people who were willing to continue practicing Islam. The Mongols also took the surviving women and children to their camps, where they assimilated them into the Mongol lifestyle. Depopulation Since the Mongolian invasion was merciless on anybody (rulers) who opposed their invasion, their incursion led to the deaths of thousands of people. Previous cities that were flowing with economic and social brilliance collapsed under the absence of people who would support the activities of the city. Baghdad, for example, suffered a huge reduction in its population as thousands of people either fled or died in the invasion. This depopulation means that a huge following of Muslim faithful died in the invasion, thereby leaving the once strong group of religious followers fragile, weak, and traumatized. To paint an accurate picture of the level of destruction that hit Baghdad, Morgan says, They swept through the city like hungry falcons attacking a flight of doves, or like raging wolves attacking sheep, with loose reins and shameless faces, murdering and spreading terror. Beds and cushions made of gold and encrusted with jewels cut to pieces with knives and torn to shreds. Those hiding behind the veils of the great Harem were dragged through the streets and alleys, each of them becoming a plaything, as the population died at the hands of the invaders (19). The level of destruction in Baghdad was therefore extensive and it led to a serious decline of human population that would have otherwise continued Islamic traditions. The decline of agricultural productivity further complicated the existence of the small populations that surv ived after the invasion. Historical excerpts say the invasion forced the surviving Arab population to farm for subsistence living (University of Calgary 11). Some researchers say the extent of devastation could not allow the surviving population to farm for their existence. This situation led to a near 90% decline in population numbers. Census numbers produced in one Iraqi province, Diyala, show that the province, which supported about 900,000 people at the height of Arab civilization, only supported about 60,000 people after the invasion (University of Calgary 11). The population failed to grow even after the invasion because a census conducted by the Ottoman Empire showed that there were only 600,000 people living in what is known today as modern Syria and Palestine, several years after the invasion (initially, these two countries supported a population of about 4,000,000 Arabs at the height of Arab civilization) (Morgan 28). Conclusion The Mongol invasion of the Arab world was pe rhaps the greatest threat to Arab civilization. After invading most parts of North, central, and West Asia, the Mongol empire was very close to â€Å"destroying† Islam. As explained through different sections of this paper, the empire mainly did so by destroying the Islamic infrastructure that supported the religion. Baghdad was the worst hit target, possibly because it was the center of Islamic culture and spirituality. The destruction of educational facilities, palaces, mosques, and libraries showed the extent that the Mongol empire was willing to go to destroy Arab civilization and Islam. However, this paper draws attention to the human massacre that characterized the invasion as the greatest threat to the existence of Islam and Arab civilization. By killing many Islamic faithful and reducing the population of city inhabitants by close to 90%, it is accurate to say the Mongol empire was close to â€Å"wiping out† the entire Muslim population. An extension of the sam e massacre to North Africa would have severed Arab civilization and ended Islam. Understandably, such levels of human devastation left a strong psychological scar to the surviving Muslim population who were afraid to practice Islam. Although, ironically, the Mongol empire later assimilated to Islam, the vibrancy of Islam, as we know it today, barely underscores the near collapse of the faith at the height of Mongol supremacy. Dutch, Steven. The Mongols, Wisconsin, WS: University of Wisconsin, 1998. Print. Morgan, David. The Mongols, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. Print. University of Calgary 2013, History of Jihad against the Mongols (1050-1258). Web.