First and Second Language Acquisition Essay -- Biology Essays Research

First and Second Language Acquisition In our everyday lives, the origin of our ability to communicate is usually not often taken into consideration. One doesn't think about how every person has, or rather had at one time, an innate ability to learn a language to total fluency without a conscious effort – a feat that is seen by the scientific community "as one of the many utterly unexplainable mysteries that beset us in our daily lives" (3).. Other such mysteries include our body's ability to pump blood and take in oxygen constantly seemingly without thought, and a new mother's ability to unconsciously raise her body temperature when her infant is placed on her chest. But a child's first language acquisition is different from these phenomena; different because it cannot be repeated. No matter how many languages are learned later in life, the rapidity and accuracy of the first acquisition can simply not be repeated. This mystery is most definitely why first language acquisition, and subsequently second language acqu isition, is such a highly researched topic. On the surface one would look at child first language acquisition and adult second language acquisition and see similarities. In each case the learner first learns how to make basic sounds, then words, phrases and sentences; and as this learning continues the sentences become more and more complex. However, when one looks at the outcomes of these two types of acquisition, the differences are dramatic. The child's ability to communicate in the target language far surpasses that of the adult. In this paper differences in these two processes that most always produce such different outcomes will be explored. Before this exploration begins, however, I would like to state ... ... learning. In conclusion, because of so many varying factors, both the processes and outcomes of child first language acquisition and adult second language acquisition are extremely different, and are only connected by a common goal. References 1)Comparing and Contrasting First and Second Language Acquisition http://www.literature.freeservers.com/image_polat/ccfsla.html 2)First and second language acquisition http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/SLA/L1%20and%20L2.htm 3)First Language Acquisition http://www.csun.edu/~galasso/lang1.htm 4) Gass, Susan M., Larry Selinker. Second Language Acquisition. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, 2001. 5)Reviewing First and Second Language Acquisition: A Comparisono between Young and Adult Learners http://www.nuis.ac.jp/~hadley/publication/languageacquisition_files/language/acquisition.htm

Ethics in Psychology Essay

The definition of ethics is as follows: â€Å"a theory or system of moral values; the general nature of morals and of the specific moral choices to be made by a person†. (dictionary.com ) In modern day society, we have bio-ethicists; professionals who are trained to judge what can be considered ethical, as well as strict guidelines set forth by the APA (American Psychological Association). However, during the early years of the formation of Psychology, there were no bio-ethicists or universal guidelines, therefore some of the early experiments such as the â€Å"Little Albert†, and â€Å"Mother Attachment† would be considered unethical and therefore would not be permitted today. In 1920, behaviorist John B. Watson and his assistant Rosalie Rayner conducted an experiment now called the â€Å"Little Albert†. The desired outcome of the experiment was to show empirical evidence of classical conditioning in humans. (T. Bartlett) A similar study that preceded â€Å"Little Albert† was conducted by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, which demonstrated the conditioning process in dogs. It is said that Watson wanted to continue and further Pavlov’s research to eventually show that emotional reactions could be classically conditioned in humans. Watson and Rayner first selected a nine month old baby from a local hospital, his name was Douglas Merritte. The child was then exposed to a series of stimuli including a white rat, a rabbit, a monkey, masks, and burning newspapers; his initial reactions were observed and recorded. The boy initially showed no fear of any of the objects he was shown. However, the second time the boy was exposed to the white rat, it is accompanied by a loud starling clang, that clearly frightens the child. This portion of the experiment is repeated multiple times until the mere sight of the white rat, or creatures that have a similar appearance, frighten the child even when unaccompanied by the startlingly clang. The researchers have successfully conditioned Little Albert to be afraid. (T. Bartlett) Today â€Å"Little Albert† is considered to be a cruel experiment of questionable value, clearly in violation of all five of the APA’s general ethical guidelines. The APA states that psychologists must: â€Å"respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination. Be aware that special safeguards may be necessary to protect the rights and welfare of persons or communities whose vulnerabilities impair autonomous decision making. Be aware of and respect cultural, individual and role differences, including those based on age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language and socioeconomic status and consider these factors when working with members of such groups. Try to eliminate the effect on their work of biases based on those factors, and they do not knowingly participate in or condone activities of others based upon such prejudices.†(APA) The first problem with â€Å"Little Albert† stems from the harm caused to the individual in question. Douglas Merritte was ultimately driven to feel extreme fear and even terror when exposed to anything that remotely resembled the white rat. This was mentally damaging for the child, and may have impaired his ability to integrate himself into society at a later date. (Cherry. K) Secondly, the right to withdraw was not present in the experiment; even when the boy became distressed and even ill the experiment continued. Therefore, today, the â€Å"Little Albert† experiment would be considered highly unethical. During the 1960’s, American Psychologist Harry Harlow, conducted a series of controvertial experiments known as the â€Å"Mother Attachment Experiments†. These experiments were used to analyze the mother-child relationship in primates. In Harlow’s initial experiments, infant monkeys were separated from their mother’s shortly after birth and were raised instead by surrogate mothers made either wire or soft terry cloth. In one experiment both types of surrogates were present in the cage, but only one was equipped with the ability to nurse the infant. Some infants received nourishment from the wire surrogate, and others were fed from the cloth mother. Harlow established that mother love was really behavior based, meaning the offspring would seek physical comfort, rather than feeding. Harlow’s isolation studies also demonstrated the need for maternal interaction with their infants and the importance of play as part of the normal process of psychosocial growth. Harlow has received multiple awards for these experiments, they have been deemed â€Å"of extreme significance for understanding those aspects of human behavior related to depression, aggression or sexual dysfunction, which originated in the formative years of mother-infant interaction.†(Theodore Lidz of Yale University Medical School). However, due to the fact that the experiments caused extreme psychological effects on the primates used in the trials, they could be seen as highly unethical. In the APA’s ethical principles of psychology, section 8.09 clearly states that psychologists must have a: Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research. Subsections B and D of section 8.09 are relevant when considering Harlow’s treatment of the primates. Subsection B states: â€Å"Psychologists trained in research methods and experienced in the care of laboratory animals supervise all procedures involving animals and are responsible for ensuring appropriate consideration of their comfort, health and humane treatment† (APA). In the â€Å"Mother Attachment† experiments, Harlow himself was not trained in the research methods and experienced in the care of the primates, nor was there any consideration for their comfort or mental health after the experiment. Furthermore, subsection D states that: â€Å"Psychologists make reasonable efforts to minimize the discomfort, infection, illness and pain of animal subjects† (APA). Harlow failed to minimize the negative effects of his experiments on the primates in a long term setting; most primates involved in the study were clinically depressed after the termination and in some cases during the experiment.Therefore, in accordance to the APA’s ethical guidelines Harlowâ €™s experiment would be seen as morally questionable and in most cases unethical in modern society. There is no question that the science which is psychology has been built and greatly advanced through the means of what some would consider unethical means and experimentation. â€Å"Little Albert† is seen today as a cruel experiment of questionable value. However knowledge was gained from this â€Å"unethical† experiment that has helped modern day psychologists. The â€Å"Mother Attachment† experiments, have won multiple awards for their â€Å"extreme significance† (Theodore Lidz) in the analysis of behavior based on the mother-child relationship; despite the fierce criticism and controversy surrounding the experiments. Should both experiments be considered morally wrong and unethical? Perhaps. Did both experiments play a large role in the advancement of psychology? Without a doubt. Therefore in Harlow and Watson’s cases, the end justifies the means. References American Psychological Association (APA). Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Retrieved December 10, 2012, from http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx?item=3 Bartlett, T. (2012). The Sad Saga of ‘Little Albert’ Gets Far Worse for a Researcher’s Reputation . Chronicle of Higher Education, Vol. 58(Issue 23), A-26. Cherry, K. Psychology – Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators & Enthusiasts. Little Albert – The Little Albert Experiment. Retrieved December 10, 2012, from http://psychology.about.com/od/classicpsychologystudies/a/little-albert-experiment.htm (1975). Honoring Harlow for dedicated research . Science News , Vol.107 (Issue 24), 383.

Comparison Of Xions Journey Into The Gray Room - 980 Words

Xion walked into the Gray Room, as usual, but unusually, all the Organization members were present, all except for Saà ¯x. Whats going on? She asked as she went up to Roxas and Axel who were by the back window. Thats what were trying figure out, Axel said. Lets just enjoy ourselves while Saà ¯x isnt here. Roxas argued. Xion frowned, though not at the news that Saà ¯x was gone. We still have to do missions, dont we? Xemnas is going to be really mad once he finds out were all here doing nothing. You worry too much, besides, since when has Xemnas ever left his room to go check on us? He leaves that to Saà ¯x. I guess youre right, but hes going to catch on soon enough, hes not stupid. How long do you think well have†¦show more content†¦So where do you want start lookin first, I say the ice cream shop! Xion crossed her arms. I doubt he wants ice cream, we should check in really dark, scary places, somewhere Saà ¯x would like. Like the castle! Now Axel crossed his arms. Uh...you sure you wanna go to that creepy place? Roxas nodded confidently. But that place is crawling with heartless. Ive been there like twice already, and I dont want today to be the last time, Xion said. Exactly. Man, Roxas, you sure do Scare me with big talk like that. How about we just walk around the city and see what we can find. Uh, yeah, thats a better idea, Roxas said, sounding a little embarrassed. The trio jumped off the roof and landed in a narrow street. Axel walked in front of them. I think after we get outta this street and cross a few alleys, there should be a big fountain up ahead. A big fountain? We never saw anything like that, Roxas said. Not my fault youre both bad at recon missions. I like to make the most out of my stay. What are you talking about, youre usually the earliest one for ice cream, Xion said. Not lately though. Only because Im the one who usually buys. Besides, Im just efficient at my job, thats all. Hey Axel, how long have you been in the Organization anyways? Roxas asked. Longer than you two have. He quipped. We know that, like...how many days has it been? I lost track. I tell ya, days in the Organization go on and